篇一：英语常用2000字
篇二：2000字翻译
全球贫困—“主流经济学”之外
9月25日，联合国召开特别会议。聚焦于所谓的“可持续发展目标”。这是一组旨在帮助世界上贫困者的全球目标，（如“到2030年消除极端贫困”）。从2015年起，他们将取代到时终止的“千年发展目标”。
这一周的自由交流专栏是由哥伦比亚大学地球研究所主任杰弗里·萨克斯的文章，聚焦于可持续发展的内容和总体目标（ 而不是一个详细的个人目标）。萨克斯教授就后经济危机民用和后华盛顿共识的背景下，开展了关于可持续发展目标中经济的重新评估的辩论。
他写道，“标准的经济政策目标就是经济增长。可持续发展的目标，就是收入水平上广泛共享的增长，这在环保上来讲也是健全的。”他把主流经济学与发展可持续发展的政治需要作对比，并认为前者是不适合处理“大问题”的，如气候变化，粮食短缺，人口的转变和缺乏教养的年轻人。”我们需要的是一个更激进一点的东西：
所有这些可持续发展目标都需要技术系统的详细检查，无论是在卫生，能源，交通运输，食品供应或更安全的城市建设等方面。这类目标推动的技术变革与正常的进化路径是不同的，是通过产品和工序的增量变化在行业里竞争的。或许我们更熟悉那些在军事方面的有针对性的技术变革（典型事例如曼哈顿项目），但也有很多的民用案件（如登月，人类基因组计划，消灭天花）可以证明成功所需的三要素，即为以下所描述的：
就国际范围而言的另一文章还着眼于可持续发展目标上的辩论，尽管这其中的重点是有点窄。它着眼于一些正在考虑的目标，与一些狭义定义的经济目标（以收入来衡量）和社会目标（针对健康或教育指标）之间的区别，并指出发展中国家在处理经济目标这一方面更成功。对比了两大类目前被称为新的可持续发展目标的方法，随着在安全网络下的经济发展的加快，并得出新的目标将无法满足这两大目标的结论。
经济史—全球化从何时开始？
“全球化”已成为过去二十里年的一个流行语。在科技创新的推动下，从互联网到海运集装箱，知识、贸易和资本在全球范围内交流的突然增长，使得“全球化”一词成为公众关注的焦点。
有些人认为全球化是一件很好的事情。诺贝尔经济学奖获得者，阿马蒂亚·森说：“全球化已经丰富了世界科学和文化，经济上也使很多人受益。” 联合国甚至预言，全球化的力量可能使人类有能力在21世纪就消除贫困。
但有些人却不以为然。全球化也曾被自由市场经济的批评者所攻击。像经济学家约瑟夫·斯蒂格利茨和张夏俊认为，世界上的不平等永远存在，而不会减少。有些人认为也许他们说的也有道理。国际货币基金组织（IMF）在2007年承认，通过在发展中国家引进新的技术和外国资本的投资，不平等水平可能已经增加了。另外，在发达国家，人们也不信任全球化。 他们担心，它常常允许雇主将工作移到更便宜的地方。在法国，“ 全球化 ”和“ 离域 ”已成为政策下的贬义词。根据伊佛普研究院的民意调查员在2012年四月份的调查中显示，只有22％的法国人认为，全球化对他们国家来说是好事。
然而，经济史学家也承认关于全球化带来的好处是否大于缺点这个问题，是比全球化本身更复杂的问题。 对于他们来说，答案取决于全球化进程究竟是始于什么时候。但为什么它是否是始于20200年前还是始于2000年前有这么重要呢？他们的回答是，在没有初次定义它在历史上到底持续了多久的前提下，我们是不知道一件事是否有好有坏的。
早期的经济学家对这个概念，也就是全世界的市场和人们会随着时间的推移逐渐融合在一起，应该也有一定的了解。尽管亚当·斯密本人从来没有使用过这个词，但“全球化”这个词却是《国富论》的一个主题内容。
他对经济发展的描述，随着市场的一体化有着它潜在的原则。劳动力的分配使得产量增加，专业化分工扩大了贸易，并使全世界不相干的集体逐渐联系起来。这种趋势几乎是和文明的发展一样早就存在。原始的劳动分工，在“猎人”和“牧羊人”之间产生，并不断扩大，使得村庄和交易网络也在不断扩大，使之具有更强的专业性。最终，武器制造者制造弓和箭，木匠盖房子，裁缝做衣物等，都出现了专门的工匠。通过交易他们的商品来换取由猎人和牧人生产的食品。随着村庄，城镇，国家和大洲开始交易那些他们自己不善长生产的的货物，市场就开始连为一体，专业化生产和贸易就开始增加。 亚当?斯密形容的这个过程在一开始听起来就有点像“全球化”，即使是在较为有限的地理范围内，也是跟今天
大多数人所认为的这个词是一样的。亚当?斯密在谈到大洲:欧洲和美国市场之间的整合时，举国一个很典型的例子。.欧洲贸易商发现了美洲原住民，这使两大洲之间产生了一个新的分工。作为一个例子，他提到了，专业狩猎的本土美国人用动物皮毛来换取旧世界里的人于千里千里之外制造的“毯子，火器和白兰地”。
一些现代经济史学家反对史密斯美国人的发现这一说法，由克里斯托弗·哥伦布在1492年发现美洲大陆，加速全球化的进程可以证明。 在2002年的一篇论文中，凯文·奥罗克和杰弗里·威廉姆森认为，在19世纪，运输成本的突然降低导致欧洲和亚洲的商品价格趋于一点时，全球化才真正开始。他们认为，哥伦布发现美洲大陆和瓦斯科?达伽马绕过好望角发现亚洲几乎对商品价格没有什么影响。
但有一个重要的市场，马瑟斯?欧?罗尔克和威廉姆森在他们的分析中忽略了，那就是白银市场。由于欧洲货币普遍基于银的价值，其价值的任何变化将对欧洲价格水平有很大的影响。史密斯本人认为这是一个最大的经济变化，才导致从发现美洲：“在16世纪，美国丰富的矿山的发现，导致黄金和白银的价值减少了过去价值的有三分之一。由于把那些金属从矿山到市场所需的成劳动本更少，因此，当他们被带到另一个地方去，他们可以购买或指挥劳动的价值越小。虽然价值也许是最大的，但这场革命绝不是历史所能给出的唯一记录。
史学家们所称为的“价格革命”产生的影响极大地改变了欧洲的面貌。历史学家把西班牙帝国在欧洲的统治，都归咎于16世纪欧洲社会突然增加的的不稳定因素的影响。如果不是在此期间从欧洲转移到中国和印度白银进口突然增加，欧洲的通货膨胀率一定更糟糕。在1650年，当银币的价格跌到一定水平时，不断上涨的价格才开始停止。对美国人来说，进口商品就不再有利可图了。
英语1002班201077250224 冯静
Global poverty—Beyond "mainstream
economics"
ON SEPTEMBER 25th, a special session of the United Nations will meet to look at the so-called “Sustainable Development Goals” (SDGs). These are a set of proposed global targets designed to help the world’s poorest (such as, for example “eradicate extreme poverty by 2030"). They would supercede, from 2015, the “millennium development goals” which expire then.
This week’s Institute at Colombia University, looking at the context and general aim of the SDGs (rather than a detailed look at individual targets). Professor Sachs sets debate about the SDGs in the context of the post-crash, post-Washington-consensus reassessment of growth.
“Standard economic policies,” he writes, “aim for growth, full stop. Sustainable development aims for growth that is broadly shared across the income scale and that is also environmentally sound.” He contrasts “mainstream economics [with] the policies that are needed to deliver sustainable development” and argues that the former is ill suited to dealing with the “big problems ahead—climate change, food scarcity, demographic shifts and poorly trained young people.”What is needed is something a bit more radical:
All of these SDGs would require an overhaul of technology systems, whether for health, energy, transport, food supplies or safer cities. Target-driven technological change of this sort is very different from the normal evolutionary path of established industries competing through incremental changes in products and processes. We are perhaps more familiar with targeted technological change in the military context (the Manhattan Project, to take an obvious example) but there are enough civilian cases (the Moon landing, the Human Genome Project, the eradication of smallpox) to identify three elements of success.
Which elements he goes on to describe. of this one is somewhat narrower. It looks at some of the particular goals being considered, makes a distinction between economic goals, narrowly defined (which target income measures) and “social goals" (targeting health or education indicators) and says developing countries has been much more successful at tackling the former. It contrasts two broad approaches now being
considered to the new SDGs—economic growthor the provision of safety nets—and concludes that the new goals will not be met without both.
Economic history—When did
globalization start?
“GLOBALISATION” has become the buzzword of the last two decades. The sudden increase in the exchange of knowledge, trade and capital around the world, driven by technological as a good thing. According to Amartya Sen, a Nobel-Prize winning economist, globalisation “has eiched the world scientifically and culturally, and benefited many people economically as well”.
The United Nations has even predicted that the forces of globalisation may have the power to eradicate poverty in the 21st century.
Others disagree. Globalisation has been attacked by critics of free market economics, like the economists Joseph Stiglitz and Ha-Joon Chang, for perpetuating inequality in the world rather than reducing it. Some agree that they may have a point. The International Monetary Fund admitted in 2007 that inequality levels may have been increased by the introduction of new technology and the investment of foreign capital in developing countries. Others, in developed nations, distrust globalisation as well. They fear that it often allows employers to move jobs away to cheaper places. In France, “globalisation” and “délocalisation” have become derogatory terms for free market policies. An April 2012 survey by IFOP, a pollster,found that only 22% of French people thought globalisation a “good thing” for their country.
However, economic historians reckon the question of whether the benefits of globalisation outweigh the downsides is more complicated than this. For them, the answer depends on when you say the process of globalisation started. But why does it matter whether globalisation started 20, 200, or even 2,000 years ago? Their answer is that it is impossible to say how much of a “good thing” a process is in history without first defining for how long it has been going on.
Early economists would certainly have been familiar with the general concept that markets and people around the world were becoming more integrated over time. Although Adam Smith himself never used the word, globalisation is a key theme in the Wealth of Nations. His description of
篇三：2000字翻译
乡镇政府电子政务建设
随着全球化和信息化的深入发展，以网络为核心的信息技术在人类社会发展进程中正发挥着越来越重要的作用。政府作为社会信息资源的最大拥有者、生产者、使用者和传递者，正经历着一场前所未有的洗礼。当前，各国政府都在着手发展电子政务。电子政务已经迅速地列入所有工业化国家的政治日程。在世界各国积极倡导的“信息高速公路”的五大应用领域中，电子政务被列为第一位。随着信息化建设的快速发展，电子政务已经在国内外风起云涌。
然而，在我国大中型城市和沿海发达地区如火如荼地发展电子政务的同时，我国相当多的乡镇基层政府电子政务建设仍然十分落后。我们在发展电子政务时，决不可忽视乡镇电子政务建设。乡镇政府是我国的基层政权，与广大人民群众的利益密切相关，其信息化水平高低直接决定了我国政府的电子政务水平。因此，研究我国乡镇电子政务建设战略与对策，具有重大的现实意义和理论意义。
在我国，乡镇是最基层的一级政府，我国有3万余乡镇，乡镇人口约占全国人口的80%，乡镇经济建设的好与坏，干群关系的稳固与否直接决定我国农村现代化进程的步伐。近年来，我国信息化建设发展迅速，大大拓展信息建设的范围，积累了丰富的信息化建设和普及经验。与此同时，国家有关部门也展开了基层单位的试点工作，一些基层乡镇也开始实施信息化建设，实现了我国信息化建设的纵深发展，也取得了一定的成绩。作为乡镇信息化建设的必要尝试，其中积累的很多经验教训都为继续开展乡镇信息化建设提供了有力的借鉴。乡镇电子政务是实现乡镇信息化的核心。乡镇电子政务的实施，可以使乡镇政府提高政府办公效率，为农民提供有效信息，带动电子农务发展。更重要的是，可以联合其他部门,以网络为载体，开发各种资源，满足农民信息服务的需求，促进农村精神文化建设，建立真正意义上的新农村。
胡锦涛总书记在党的十七大报告中指出，要加快行政管理体制改革，建设服务型政府。把行政管理体制改革和建设服务型政府这一政策方针，贯彻到乡镇一级的最基层政府，对乡镇政府的管理提出了更高的要求。乡镇政府管理创新，是乡镇管理体制改革的重要内容、重要途径和重要手段。乡镇电子政务的实施给乡镇公务员队伍带来了深刻的变化，改变了传统的政府和公务员自身的工作方式，同时也对公务员的素质提出了新的要求。
乡镇电子政务建设将给公务员队伍带来深刻的变化。电子政务改变了传统的政府工作形式，还改变了公务员的工作方式。电子政务对政府公务员的素质，如观念意识、技术知识、心理生理、道德伦理等方面，提出了新的要求。
电子政务建设对乡镇政府运行机制创新的作用体现在通过理论环境和信息条件的改善推动政府决策的科学化；通过政府与公民关系的改善促进政府决策的民主化；为政务公开提供了廉价、快捷的方式，由此促进政府监控机制的优化；促进多元化政府绩效评估，从而有利于将竞争机制更多地引入政府机构；通过对自由裁量权的行使增加技术限制，推动依法行政。
在电子政务的背景下，乡镇政府尤其要注意加强社会管理和公共服务。如果公共服务职能不到位，电子政务建设不但不能发挥应有的积极作用，还极有可能造成负面影响。同时，电子政务建设也能更有效地改进社会管理，更快捷地为企业和公民提供公共服务。
电子政务建设可以推动乡镇代议民主的调整和公民参与的良性发展。因此，要结合电子政务的建设，充分发挥信息网络系统的优势，不断创造一些新的形式，以逐步推进我国乡镇的政治体制改革。
目前从整体上看，我国的乡镇电子政务还处于起步阶段，发展水平较低。主要表现在以下几个方面：第一，乡镇信息化建设情况普遍比较落后；第二，政府工作人员的计算机技术水平较低；第三，乡镇电子政务建设资金相当缺乏;第四，办公电子化程度不高。此外，乡镇电子政务发展很不平衡：第一，各地对电子政务的认识参差不齐；第二，各乡镇电子政务信息化程度差距较大；第三，政府工作人员科学文化素质有差距。
导致我国乡镇电子政务发展落后的原因是多方面的。首先，观念滞后，认识不到位是制约我国乡镇电子政务建设发展的首要因素。电子政务是完全不同于现行管理模式的一种新的管理模式，这种管理模式的建立要求人们改变现行的思维方式和工作方式。对于究竟为什么要建设电子政务，应该怎样发展乡镇的电子政务，目前不同集团和利益阶层对它的认识差异很大，没有形成共识，认识上的不统一和利益上的冲突给电子政务的发展造成了巨大的摩擦和阻力。其次，我国绝大部分乡镇的电子政务基础性设施的建设水平还很低，网络设施比较落后，电信基础设施相对落后，乡镇政府网站建设不足，离真正实现电子政务的要求还有很大的差距。再次，广大乡镇政府的财力有限，特别是经济不发达的地区更是心有余而力不足。从调查的情况看，乡镇电子政务建设资金相当匾乏，这是我国乡镇电子政务发展过程中的 一个大问题。第四，农村基层干部和群众的科学文化素质偏低也在很大程度上制约了我国乡镇电子政务的发展。
因此，为了加快我国乡镇电子政务建设的发展，可以从以下几个方面努力:第一，发展乡镇电子政务首先要更新观念，提高对乡镇电子政务建设意义的认识；第二，确立正确的乡镇电子政务建设的指导原则；第三，拓宽渠道，多方筹集建设资金；第四，借鉴成功经验，
利用发达地区的人才和技术资源；第五，长远规划，分步实施，循序推进;第六，广开门路，大力发展农村经济；第七，大力普及电脑知识，努力提高干部群众的素质。
总之，作为乡镇信息化核心的乡镇电子政务是我国整个电子政务系统建设的基础，是进行交流和互动的最前沿，直接体现了政府服务的质量和效率，乡镇政府电子政务的建设与创新具有重要的时代意义。
E-government construction of the Township Government
With the deep development of globalization and information, with network at core, information technology plays a more and more important role during the development of human society. As the biggest owner, applicator, producer, user and deliverer of social information resource, the government is facing a unprecedented chance. All governments in the world are developing e-government now. Electronic government have already placed the political program of all industrialization countries promptly, in the five application fields of "information" has been already listed as the first, the former government information tide in vain is sweeping whole world. With the rapid development of information technology, e-government is springing up at home and abroad.
However, when the constructions of e-government are developing like a raging fire at China's big cities and the developed littoral areas, the construction of e-government in villages and towns is very backward. We cannot ignore the construction of e-government in villages and towns. Governments of villages and towns are the grass-root governments, which have osculation influence of people's benefits, the information level of our government is determined directly by their information level. The research on China's strategy and the solution of the construction of e-government in villages and towns has its realistic and theoretical significance.
In China, township is the most fundamental level of government. China has over 30000 towns, whose population accounts for about 80% of the country's. Rural economic development and the stability of the relationship between cadres and the masses directly determine the pace of the modernization process of China's rural areas. In recent years, the development of China's information construction is rapid, which greatly expand the scope of information construction and accumulate rich experience in information technology and popularization. At the same time, China's information construction also develops in depth, and a number of grass-roots towns began to implement the information technology and made some achievements. In addition, national authorities also carry out some pilot buildings in some local grass-roots. All these things are necessary for the construction of rural information attempts, in which the accumulated experience and lessons for further information to carry out township building. Realization of information is the core of rural townships e-government. Through the implementation of rural e-government, you can keep pace with the development trend of information technology to improve the efficiency of government offices to provide farmers with useful information to drive the development of e-farming. More important is that other sectors can work together to the network as the carrier, development of various resources and information services to meet the needs of the farmers to
promote the spiritual and cultural construction in rural areas to create a true sense of the new countryside.
Innovation is the driving force behind the development of a country, is vitality, viability, processes and methods of a modern government to build an innovative country, is China's strategic objectives. Since the reform and opening up of China has been growing awareness of innovation, Hu Jintao, general secretary of the party's 17 major report that to speed up the administrative system and the building of service-oriented government. Administrative reform and the construction of service-oriented government, implementation at the township level of the most grass-roots government are the higher requirements of management of township government.
Township government management innovation is an important part, an important way and important means of township management system. The implementation of e-government to the rural township civil service brought about profound changes, changes in the traditional government and civil service's own working methods, but also new demands of the quality of civil servants.
Town e-government will bring profound changes to its civil servants. E-government has changed the traditional form of government work, but also changed the civil service work. E-government put forward new demands on the quality of civil servants, such as the concept of awareness, technical knowledge, psycho-physical, moral, ethical, etc.
E-government mechanism innovation of township government operations reflected in the adoption of the role of the environment and information theory, improvements in conditions to promote scientific and government decision-making; through the improvement of relations between government and citizens to promote the democratization of government decision-making; for government affairs offers the most inexpensive, efficient way, thereby contributing to the government monitoring mechanism of the optimization; the promotion of pluralism government performance evaluation, thereby facilitating greater competition into the government agencies; through the exercise of discretion to increase technical limitations, to promote administration according to law.
In the context of e-government, township government should pay particular attention to strengthening the social management and public services. If the public service functions are not in place, e-government construction not only failed to play its positive role, but also most likely be adversely affected. Meanwhile, the E-government can more effectively improve social management, and more efficient for businesses and citizens with public services.
E-government can facilitate the adjustment of township representative democracy and citizen participation in the benign development. Therefore, to combine e-government, give full play to the advantages of information network system, and constantly create some new forms, to gradually push forward political restructuring in China's district towns. With the advent of knowledge-based economy, human society will gradually transition to a new social governance system, and its outstanding features are: creative and sustainable development-oriented, strengthening and deepening of the individual, autonomous subsystem integration, social self toward the high-level and multi-level, diversified development and exercise of sovereignty over citizens of indirect democracy, representative and direct democracy, a gradual decline with increasing development, public administration and public services are increasingly diverse.
Township government management innovation is an important part, an important way and important means of township management system. The implementation of e-government through
the township, for the grass-roots government management and service providers an efficient information processing tools that enable grass-roots level in the face of diverse and complex variety of social affairs, is no longer blocking and other shortcomings of the previous information, but can make a fast and flexible response, and effective to control the current situation; township government offices have also broken the Internet in different units and departments boundaries, so that it can be achieved in time to communicate with each other to form a crisscross integration of work processes, reducing middle management links, and effective to reduce the cost of management; electronic documents, electronic processing and e-procurement, e-government means the gradual application, so the township government's Administrative processes to shorten cycle of an unprecedented response, and greatly improve the management efficiency; government made public on line, so that the township government establishment of management operations under the supervision of the whole society to promote grass-roots government management and service levels continue to improve.
Overall, e-governance in rural areas is at a beginning period, which is demonstrated as followed: firstly, the whole situations are underdeveloped; secondly, the skill of government officials on computer is very inexperience; thirdly, the financial is very insufficient; fourthly, e-office is underdeveloped.
The reasons of the underdevelopment of e-governance in rural areas are somniferous. First of all, it is the lag of conception, misunderstanding of cognition. E-governance is a total different management mode compares to the status quo, which urges people to change their way of thinking and working. Different group and classes have not come to a common recognition. on why and how to develop e-governance. Such disunity and conflict have brought tremendous difficulties to the development of e-governance. Furthermore, the infrastructure of e-governance is very unpleasant. Lastly, the financial of rural government can not afford such issues.
As a result of above, to speed up the development of e-governance in rural areas, the solutions are: firstly, update the people's concept on e-governance; secondly, establish the rules on how to build e-governance in rural areas; thirdly, capitalize from every possible channels; fourthly, use the human and technical resources of developed areas; fifthly, mark out to the future, implement step by step; sixthly, expand rural economy; seventhly, enhance people's computer skills.
In short, the core of information technology as a township of e-government is the fundamental part of the entire government system in China. And also e-government in county-level government which directly faces the public is the frontier of communication and interaction, thus directly presenting quality and efficiency of service. The township government building and innovation of e-government has an important meaning of the times.
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